On the eve of modernity, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, logic was a staple part of madrasa education in all major centers of Islamic learning, from Fes and Tunis in the Maghreb to Qom and Lucknow in the East. Practically all students were expected to study at least the basics of the discipline, and the more ambitious would have studied intermediate and advanced texts as well. Works on logic were routinely written; these were often commentaries and glosses on standard madrasa handbooks but sometimes also treatises on particular topics or even new handbooks. Some of these treatises, handbooks, commentaries and glosses were among the earliest books published in the nineteenth century by the newly established printing and lithography presses of Morocco, Cairo, Istanbul, Kazan, Iran and India.
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